Introduction
Early clinical trial data highlighted a troubling correlation between elevated exposure levels—specifically, a mean Cmax of 13.6 μg/mL for TMP and 372 μg/mL for SMZ—and increased incidences of intolerable drug toxicity when treating Pneumocystis carinii infections.12–14 Additionally, research conducted by Brown emphasizes the critical importance of adhering to target Cmax levels ranging from 5–8 μg/mL for TMP and 100–200 μg/mL for SMZ.15 Moreover, TMP/SMZ demonstrates considerable interindividual pharmacokinetic variability, which can complicate treatment paradigms.16 It is noteworthy that the half-life of TMP/SMZ lengthens with advancing age, a factor that pairs closely with serum creatinine levels.17 Moreover, a recent investigation indicated that when the prescribed dosage was adjusted for renal function, plasma concentrations of TMP/SMZ fell below therapeutic levels during continuous veno-venous hemofiltration (CVVH) in a patient recovering from COVID-19 combined with pulmonary Pneumocystis carinii co-infection.18 Hence, consistent monitoring of TMP/SMZ concentrations throughout treatment is crucial for assessing both the effectiveness and safety of drug therapy, vital for refining clinical therapeutic outcomes while minimizing adverse reactions. Ongoing research is imperative to establish the optimal TMP/SMZ dosing that effectively balances clinical efficacy with manageable side effects, ultimately facilitating effective antimicrobial therapy for PCP.19 This paper presents a thorough analysis of a case wherein clinical pharmacists meticulously monitored plasma, urine, and sputum concentrations of TMP/SMZ in a child grappling with PCP. Responsive adjustments to the treatment plan were made based on the monitoring outcomes and patient condition, leading to a successful recovery. Insights gleaned from this case are pivotal for enhancing the clinical prevention and management strategies targeting PCP.
Case Presentations
A six-month-old male patient was admitted to our hospital’s pediatric intensive care unit on September 21, 2023, due to a persistent cough lasting over 20 days, accompanied by alarming symptoms of wheezing and shortness of breath for one day prior. While the patient’s medical history included recurrent eczema, there were no documented food or drug allergies. Family history was significant for the father, who had allergic rhinitis, and the mother, who was allergic to yams and penicillins.
Upon admission, physical examination revealed vital signs indicating the patient’s compromised condition: temperature (T), 36.8 °C; pulse rate (P), 118 beats per minute; respiratory rate (RR), 50 breaths per minute; blood pressure (BP), 99/55 mmHg; pulse oxygen saturation (SpO2), 90%; and body weight, 6.6 kg (Figure 1).
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Figure 1 Ventilator settings and body temperature in this patient during treatment.
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Figure 2 Posteroanterior Chest Digital Radiography (DR) of patient at different time-points during treatment (A: September 25), (B: September 28), (C: October 7), (D: October 19), (E: October 29) and (F: November 6).
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Figure 3 Course of medication during the patient’s treatment.
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Figure 4 Plasma concentration–time curves of TMP/SMZ during 8-hour (iv, between September 29 and November 1) or 6-hour (po, between November 2 and November 18) dosing period in this patient (A). Plasma drug concentrations were measured 0.5 hour after last administration on October 7, 11, 16 and 23; 1.5 hours and 4 hours afterwards on November 3; and 2 hours afterwards on November 4 and 6. Urine concentration-time curves of TMP/SMZ (B and C) in this patient.
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Figure 5 Important clinical information and treatment timeline of patient during hospitalization. Abbreviations: T, temperature; WBC, white blood cell; CRP, C-reaction protein; PCT, procalcitonin; BALF, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid; NGS, Next-Generation Sequencing; DR, Digital Radiography.
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Discussion
Justification for the Use of High Dose TMP/SMZ in Pediatric Patients with Severe PCP Infection
Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) of TMP/SMZ is a critical component in the management of patients with severe infections to ensure therapeutic efficacy, while minimizing the risk of adverse drug reactions (ADRs). In this reported case, TDM for this patient was meticulously conducted throughout the entire treatment course, with the treatment plan adjusted based on the plasma concentration of TMP/SMZ and the patient’s clinical response. Blood sample collections aimed to determine the peak concentration (Cmax) included timings of 3 hours following oral administration and between 0.5 and 1 hour post-intravenous administration.
In accordance with the treatment guidelines for PCP, as outlined by UpToDate (advising a therapeutic dosage of 90–120 mg/kg/day given in 3 to 4 doses), the administration route for TMP/SMZ was transitioned from oral to intravenous on September 28, involving a dose of 0.24 g, quaque 8 hora (q8h). This adjustment was necessitated when BALF silver hexamine staining revealed a significant presence of Pneumocystis carinii cysts. Serum concentrations of SMZ and TMP measured on October 7 were 67.7 μg/mL and 3.9 μg/mL, respectively. Given the plasma concentrations fell outside the optimal range established by Brown et al., which recommends 100–200 μg/mL for SMZ and 5–8 μg/mL for TMP,15 the dosage was adjusted upwards to 0.288 g q8h, equivalent to 130 mg/kg/day. Plasma concentrations assessed on October 11 showed 47.1 μg/mL for SMZ and 6.5 μg/mL for TMP (Figure 4A). No further increases were warranted, nor were additional medications incorporated to circumvent potential ADRs such as neutropenia.
Pediatric patients suffering from severe infections often exhibit Augmented Renal Clearance (ARC), which can lead to accelerated drug elimination. Studies define ARC through a creatinine clearance (CrCl) of ≥ 130 mL/min.22 Hirai’s research substantiates this, employing an estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate (eGFR) of ≥ 160 mL/min/1.73m2 to delineate ARC.23 Current pediatric benchmarks define normal urine output for children under one year of age as 400–500 mL/day. This patient demonstrated a urine output exceeding 500 mL/day, coupled with a CrCl range of 180–230 mL/min/1.73m2 for the extensive treatment period (Figure 6A and B). Careful monitoring of plasma and urine concentrations of TMP/SMZ was fundamental throughout this interval. Data revealed that the urine concentration of SMZ was approximately 40–60 times higher than plasma concentrations during the same timeframe, aligning with the distribution tendencies indicated in the product literature for SMZ. Conversely, the TMP concentration in urine mirrored only 0.6–1 times that of plasma across the same span (Figure 4B and C), reinforcing the influence of ARC on drug excretion and highlighting suboptimal SMZ levels.
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Figure 6 Daily urine output (A) and CrCl (B) in this patient during treatment.
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When treating pediatric patients with severe PCP infection, high doses of TMP/SMZ facilitate rapid distribution to lung tissue, achieving levels sufficient for therapeutic effects. The metabolic profile of TMP/SMZ in lung tissue retains a slow rate, sustaining elevated local concentrations critical for efficacy. Therefore, it is vital to simultaneously measure TMP/SMZ concentrations in plasma, urine, and sputum to guide personalized treatment strategies. Individualized treatment can be optimized through comprehensive evaluations of drug efficacy and safety. This tailored approach carries significant clinical importance, balancing therapeutic effectiveness and patient safety by avoiding ADRs.
Safety Evaluation of High Dose TMP/SMZ in Pediatric Patients with Severe PCP Infection
Implication of Sputum TMP/SMZ Concentration Monitoring in Pediatric Patients with Severe PCP Infection
Although the plasma drug concentration of this patient did not fall within the target range, the ultimate therapeutic outcome remained promising. Consequently, it is recommended to measure TMP/SMZ concentrations across plasma, urine, and sputum simultaneously to inform individualized treatment strategies. This suggests an urgent need for more tailored approaches that encompass thorough drug efficacy evaluations and safety assessments. Such practices reflect significant clinical implications, ensuring treatment effectiveness while prioritizing patient safety through ADR mitigation. Notably, in pediatric patients, particularly the neonate and infant populations, the pharmacokinetic traits of TMP/SMZ diverge from those observed in adults.
This raises critical questions about the suitability of TMP/SMZ formulations currently used for pediatric patients, emphasizing the need for further studies to fine-tune dosing regimens in this demographic.
Conclusion
TDM in this case study revealed essential insights regarding the treatment of pediatric patients with severe PCP infection. It emphasized high doses of TMP/SMZ are indispensable to attaining adequate tissue concentrations, documenting a final dose of 130 mg/kg/d for effective treatment. It was noteworthy that there were no drug crystals found in the urine during the treatment at this dosing level, suggesting that the approach was reasonable and safe. Finally, the distinct pharmacokinetic properties of TMP and SMZ raise doubts about the appropriateness of the current 1:5 ratio used in clinical settings for pediatric patients, particularly concerning PCP treatment—underscoring a pressing need for additional research to bolster evidence-based dosing strategies.
Data Sharing Statement
Data will be provided by the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Ethics Approval and Informed Consent
This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shenzhen Children’s Hospital (202214203) and has been performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from the patient’s immediate family members for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this case report prior to inclusion.
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Funding
This study was supported by Shenzhen Fund for Guangdong Provincial High-Level Clinical Key Specialties (No. SZGSP012), Guangdong High-level Hospital Construction Fund and Guangdong Yiyang Healthcare Charity Foundation (2022YXKY04).
Disclosure
None of the authors have any conflicts of interest.
References
1. Zakrzewska M, Roszkowska R, Zakrzewski M, Maciorkowska E. Pneumocystis Pneumonia: still a serious disease in children. J Mother Child. 2021;23(3):159–162. doi:10.34763/devperiodmed.20192303.159162
5. Williams KM, Ahn KW, Chen M, et al. The incidence, mortality and timing of Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia after hematopoietic cell transplantation: a CIBMTR analysis. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2016;51(4):573–580. doi:10.1038/bmt.2015.316
7. Fishman JA, Gans H. Pneumocystis jiroveci in solid organ transplantation: guidelines from the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Clin Transplant. 2019;33(9):e13587. doi:10.1111/ctr.13587
10. Goldman JL, Jackson MA, Herigon JC, Hersh AL, Shapiro DJ, Leeder JS. Trends in adverse reactions to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Pediatrics. 2013;131(1):e103–8. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-1619
11. Kato H, Hagihara M, Asai N, Mikamo H, Iwamoto T. Evaluation of effectiveness, hyperkalaemia, and hepatotoxicity of trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole prophylaxis for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in paediatric patients: a single-centre retrospective study. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2024;63(5):107151. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2024.107151
18. le Noble J, Foudraine N, van der Elst KCM, Bouwman S. Sub-therapeutic trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole plasma concentrations during continuous venovenous hemofiltration in a patient with COVID-19 and pulmonary Pneumocystis jirovecii co-infection: a case report. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2023;61(11):525–530. doi:10.5414/cp204407
19. Weyant RB, Kabbani D, Doucette K, Lau C, Cervera C. Pneumocystis jirovecii: a review with a focus on prevention and treatment. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2021;22(12):1579–1592. doi:10.1080/14656566.2021.1915989
Let’s Talk About the Elephant in the Room: Pediatric PCP and TMP/SMZ
So, picture this: you’re a clinical pharmacist and you’re dealing with this little six-month-old marvel who’s about as sick as the WiFi at a family reunion. Enter stage left: boundaries of conventional treatment for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP). It’s a pediatric nightmare and honestly, who knew saving lives came with such high stakes?
The introductory part of this article dives into the nitty-gritty of trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMZ) usage. It lays down the highlights on how a mean Cmax of 13.6 μg/mL for TMP and 372 μg/mL for SMZ can basically ruin a perfectly fine Thursday afternoon with adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Research by Brown indicates we should keep our Cmax levels somewhere between 5–8 μg/mL for TMP and a modest 100–200 μg/mL for SMZ. That’s right; we’re looking for the Goldilocks zone between “not enough” and “too much!”
And let’s not ignore the wild rollercoaster ride called pharmacokinetic variability. Apparently, the only thing more unpredictable than a child under sugar rush is how these drugs behave in different individuals. Kids, as it turns out, come with their own bespoke set of challenges. Who needs a theme park when you can observe how the half-life of TMP/SMZ increases with age like it’s some sort of aging fine wine?
A Case Study That’s Not Just for Show
Now, onto our star of the show: a six-month-old chap battling a two-decade cough (well, that’s 20 days, but who’s counting!). He ends up in the pediatric ICU with a cough and shortness of breath, critiquing the state of his respiratory health. Eczema? Check. Allergies? The plot thickens with the father having allergic rhinitis and the mother declaring her war with yams and penicillins. It’s like a family reunion gone wrong.
Fast forward to his vital signs—temperature a mere 36.8°C, and pulse oxygen saturation at a meek 90%. Now, that’s not the kind of party you want to throw in the hospital! Check out Figure 1 for the festive ventilator settings! Nothing screams ‘good times’ like being hooked up to machines.
The High Stakes of High Doses
We’re moving on to the discussion like a child moves on from their cereal to dessert. Turns out, therapeutic drug monitoring is the MVP in the arena against PCP. In this case study, the drug levels were monitored throughout the treatment, oh-so-casually balancing the need for high doses against the equal need to avoid ADRs like a tightrope walker at a circus. Spoiler alert: no clowns were harmed in the making of this treatment.
The moment the drug administration shifted from oral to IV, it felt like we flipped a light switch! Results showed plasma concentrations at October 7 were 67.7 μg/mL for SMZ and 3.9 μg/mL for TMP—a reminder that we are indeed addressing a serious issue here. After a dosage adjustment, we hit a final therapeutic dose of a whopping 130 mg/kg/d of TMP/SMZ, and let me tell you, we were not messing around.
Renal Clearance: The Unsung Hero
Here’s where it gets interesting. The kiddo exhibited what is known as Augmented Renal Clearance (ARC). It’s got a fancy name, but essentially, it means his kidneys were working overtime, excreting drugs faster than a kid runs from a room full of Brussels sprouts. This kid’s urine output reached over 500 mL/d, making our treatment a real balancing act between drug efficacy and potential toxicity. And the monitoring wasn’t just for laughs! It became clear that some concentrations were higher in the urine than in the plasma, raising an eyebrow. Do those kidneys deserve a raise, or what?
Conclusion: The Takeaway and a Sense of Urgency
In wrapping this delightful saga, the study reiterates the importance of high doses of TMP/SMZ in pediatric PCP infections. High stakes for high doses, indeed! From this case, we learn that while optimal drug concentration in tissues is paramount, we also need to keep an eye out to avoid those pesky ADRs. The recommended treatment strategies deserve a thumbs up but also leave us scratching our heads about the TMP:SMZ ratio used in practice—1:5 feels a bit off. Further research is necessary to ensure we’re not giving kids something that’ll turn them into little human chemical experiments!
This article showcased the need for careful drug monitoring and individualized treatment plans in pediatrics. Because if there’s one thing I know, it’s this: in medicine, being overly meticulous is never over-the-top.
Final Thoughts
If you’re left wondering about the efficacy and safety of TMP/SMZ for kiddies with severe PCP, you’re not alone—let’s just say it’s a complicated relationship. But, as with any good story, we know that every kid deserves a fighting chance, even if it requires high-tech monitoring and a hefty dose of pharmaceutical creativity!
This rendition captures the essence of the initial article while injecting a sharp, observational, and somewhat cheeky tone into the discussion. It ensures that the details are explored thoroughly while engaging the reader with an entertaining narrative style.
Nd safety. With such robust renal function, keeping drug levels in check was crucial to avoid complications.
Given the high doses and his unique renal dynamics, continuous therapeutic drug monitoring was imperative. We wanted to ensure the concentrations remained within that elusive Goldilocks zone — not enough to tempt fatal adverse reactions but enough to effectively combat this persistent and life-threatening infection. It was a meticulous juggle that healthcare professionals are all too familiar with when navigating pediatric care, especially in cases of Pneumocystis pneumonia.
Conclusion: The Takeaway from This Case
This case reinforces the critical need for individualized treatment approaches in pediatric patients battling serious infections like PCP. It emphasizes the importance of stringent drug monitoring and the necessity of adjusting treatment plans based on real-time pharmacokinetic data. As pediatric pharmacists and clinicians, we must remain vigilant, adapting our strategies to address the specific challenges presented by each patient.
Ultimately, good communication with the family and a collaborative approach to care are essential in navigating the complexities of pediatric infections. Through teamwork and continual assessment, we can deliver safe and effective therapies to our young patients while ensuring we achieve therapeutic goals without overstepping into the domain of adverse effects.
So, let’s keep talking about that elephant in the room — pediatric PCP and TMP/SMZ — and continue finding balanced approaches for our tiniest patients during these high-stakes medical battles.